Are Video Games Desensitizing Kids to Violence(Peer Reviewed)
Introduction
Recently, the lodge has witnessed the rapidly evolution in video game industry. A non-negligible upshot is that most of the video games contain violent content (Yoon and Somers, 2003), which could exist harmful to the players, fifty-fifty jeopardize the public safety. The relationship between exposure to media violence and its potential negative effects has been the subject of social, political, and scientific attention for decades. Playing violent games may heighten aggressive behavior, cognition, and amore; increment physiological arousal and hostility; and decrease the probability of helping others (e.g., Anderson and Bushman, 2001, 2002; Bushman and Anderson, 2001, 2009; Anderson et al., 2004, 2008; Gentile et al., 2004; Bartholow et al., 2005; Bushman and Huesmann, 2006). Playing violent video games (VVGs) as well has a desensitizing physiological effect (Carnagey et al., 2007), and may also exist associated with non-tearing delinquent behaviors (Anderson and Dill, 2000; Ferguson and Kilburn, 2009; Desai et al., 2010; Gunter and Daly, 2012), such as adulterous, skipping schoolhouse, stealing, and substance abuse. Previous researches accept investigated the relationship betwixt empathy and exposure to video game violence. It has been suggested that exposure to VVG was associated with lower empathy (Funk et al., 2004; Anderson et al., 2010). Withal, the existing researches apropos desensitization effects of VVG are non inconsistent. For example, Ferguson and Kilburn (2010) conducted a meta-analysis and the results suggested that VVGs were not significantly associated with assailment, neither with prosocial behavior (Jerabeck and Ferguson, 2013; Elson and Ferguson, 2014; Tear and Nielsen, 2014). Instead, some of the VVGs could even increment the cognition abilities such as object tracing, spatial discrimination, and primal attention (Green and Bavelier, 2006, 2007). Even the inconsistent researches are not quite much, given the publication bias and the validity of behavioral investigations, the null results of previous researches should as well pay attending to. These indicated that the long-fourth dimension event of VVGs should exist carefully examined further.
Empathy is a crucial component of human emotional experience and social interaction (Bernhardt and Singer, 2012), which is vital to our everyday advice and survival in a social environment (Fan et al., 2011). Ordinarily, empathy refers to the chapters to understand and share the emotional and affective states of another person in relation to oneself (Decety and Jackson, 2004; Vocalist et al., 2006; Hein and Vocaliser, 2008; Guo et al., 2012, 2013). The capacity for empathy allows united states to understand others' emotions, motivations, and behaviors, which help us to decide what we tin do. Empathy for pain is a typical form of empathy. When witnessing other people suffering in pain, the observers ofttimes bear witness compassion, sympathy and intendance-giving to them (Goubert et al., 2005). The empathy for pain is attracting increasing attending because of its survival value embodied in the capacity that positively correlates to prosocial behavior and behaviors conforming to our social norms (Hoffman, 2008).
There are a growing number of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies that focus on empathy for pain. Enquiry demonstrates that the starting time-hand experience of hurting and the observation of others in pain activate like neural circuits. These neural circuits consist of areas encoding different dimensions of pain perception. The primary and secondary somatosensory cortex mainly subserve the sensory-discriminative dimension of hurting (e.one thousand., Bushnell et al., 1999; Avenanti et al., 2005; Valeriani et al., 2008; Akitsuki and Decety, 2009), whereas the supplementary motor area (SMA), cerebellum, insula, anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), and the anterior mid-cingulate cortex (aMCC) mainly subserve the affective-motivational dimension of pain (e.yard., Singer et al., 2004; Danziger et al., 2006; Gu and Han, 2007; Lamm et al., 2007; Akitsuki and Decety, 2009). These two dimensions are highly correlated (Decety, 2011). At that place are as well encephalon regions encoding the cognitive-evaluative dimension of hurting, such as the temporoparietal junction (TPJ) and the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), which are involved in social interaction, intention, and belief (e.grand., Walter et al., 2004; Amodio and Frith, 2006; Moll and de Oliveira-Souza, 2007). Other regions, similar the amygdala, thalamus, and periaqueductal gray (PAG) may likewise be activated when watching others in pain (eastward.g., Phelps et al., 2001; Adolphs, 2002; Winston et al., 2003). Furthermore, empathy or empathy-related neural networks may interact with (and be modulated past) the action of other neural networks relevant for social cognition, such as mentalizing, cerebral control, and emotion regulation (Bufalari and Ionta, 2013). Based on these findings, information technology is apparent that pain empathy is associated with cognitive and emotional regions such every bit TPJ, OFC, and ACC, which were vital in cognitive command and moral judgment (Molenberghs et al., 2015). We could speculate that lack of empathy for hurting in others may lead to terrible consequences, not but to the individuals themselves, just also the whole lodge.
Long-time exposure to VVGs may blunt this capacity and result in undesirable consequences. In this research, we mainly focused on the relationship between long-term exposure to video game violence and empathy to investigate the negative furnishings of media violence on empathy, specially empathy for pain for others. According to onetime researches, desensitization to video game violence may be a core factor to depression chapters of empathy for pain in others. Information technology has been repeatedly proved that longtime exposure to video game violence leads to desensitization, which refers to impaired emotional response to negative feelings coupling with aggressive consequences. This may crusade numb senses of knowing the pain and suffering of others which may result in low empathy for others' pain. A negative correlation was confirmed between long-term video game violence exposure and empathy (Funk et al., 2004; Bartholow et al., 2005; Krahé and Möller, 2010). There are also neuropsychological evidences to support this argument. Playing VVGs can touch some regions or neural circuits of the frontal lobe (e.g., Davidson et al., 2000; Mathiak and Weber, 2006; Wang et al., 2009), and this may impact the response of gamers to emotional stimuli (Kühn et al., 2011). Similar results were institute past Gentile et al. (2016) that long time exposure to VVGs may lead to suppression in regions relating to emotional response regions and cerebral regions and abnormal activities in cognitive control regions (Gentile et al., 2016). Moreover, Montag et al. (2012) assumed that due to a frequent confrontation with violent scenes, the first-person-shooter-video-gamers might have habituated to the furnishings of unpleasant stimuli, resulting in lower brain activation. Coincidentally, Guo et al. (2013) explored participants' empathic responses after short-term exposure to violent videos, using fMRI. They found that brusk-term exposure to media violence reduced the activation of the aMCC and insula, and proposed that exposure to media violence had a desensitizing event. These indicated that longtime exposure to media violence is associated with empathy for pain in others. In addition, it likewise should be noted that extant literature still exist some inconsistency between VVGs and desensitization consequence, which needs further exploration.
What'southward more, there currently is few fMRI research exploring the human relationship between exposure to video game violence and hurting empathy. This kind of enquiry can help us to understand the neural mechanism of empathy and to place the influence of violent games on the brain. Based on by research on empathy amidst healthy participants (e.thousand., Akitsuki and Decety, 2009; Fan et al., 2011, 2014; Lamm et al., 2011) and certain types of groups (e.g., Mathews and MacLeod, 2005; Decety et al., 2009), also as research on the affective processing and empathy amid vehement video gamers (east.g., Anderson et al., 2010; Barlett and Anderson, 2011; Zhen et al., 2011; Guo et al., 2013), the nowadays study aimed to identify whether video game violence tin can affect the capacity of empathy for pain, if so, how video game violence tin affect the capacity of empathy for pain.
Materials and Methods
Participants
All the participants were recruited from the community of Southwest University (Chongqing, China). Participants were selected from approximately 200 undergraduates who completed a video game questionnaire (Anderson and Dill, 2000) that examined their previous game feel. We calculated a score representing their previous game experience and so randomly selected 20 individuals scoring above the 75th percentile and 20 individuals scoring beneath the 25th percentile, to contain loftier and low previous-exposure groups (VG and NGs), respectively. All the participants were males aged eighteen to 27 (One thousand = 21.17, SD = 2.065). All the participants were right-handed and had normal or corrected-to-normal vision. None of them had a history of neurological or psychiatric disorders. All participants gave informed consent before scanning. After the experiment, they were paid for their participation.
Materials
Video Game Questionnaire
The video game questionnaire (Anderson and Dill, 2000) was used to select participants. Participants were asked to list three their favorite video games, indicate the number of hours they played each game in a week, and then charge per unit the violence of their content and graphics (from 1 = not at all to 7 = extremely). Previous game feel was measured by summing the content and graphics ratings for each game, multiplying the sum of the number of hours the game was played each week, and and so averaging across the three games. The questionnaire showed expert reliability and validity. The internal consistency coefficient was 0.89–0.91, and the Q factor of each cistron reached 0.7 (attractive factor: 0.77; violence cistron: 0.90; time factor: 0.73).
Interpersonal Reactivity Index-China (IRI-C)
Interpersonal Reactivity Alphabetize-Prc (IRI-C) is a 22-item questionnaire for measuring trait empathy. The IRI-C is the Chinese version of IRI (Zhang et al., 2010), and four dimensions were included in this questionnaire: perspective taking, fantasy, empathic business organization, and personal distress. IRI-C has been demonstrated to accept satisfactory reliability and validity (Zhang et al., 2010; Jiang et al., 2014).
Stimuli in the Experiment
Eighty digital color pictures showing people's hands, forearms, or anxiety in painful or not-painful situations (40 pictures each) were used equally stimuli. All situations depicted familiar events that occasionally happen in our everyday life; the stimuli were similar to those used by Meng et al. (2012). Examples of painful situations depicted a mitt cut past a pocketknife and a foot stabbed past pins (Figure one). Not-painful situations were paired with painful situations, without whatever nociceptive components, such equally using a knife to cut cucumbers and a foot touched by an eraser. All pictures were shot from first-person perspectives and edited to the same size. Luminance, contrast, and colour were matched betwixt painful and non-painful pictures (Meng et al., 2012).
Figure one. Illustration of the painful and non-painful pictures. (Left) The left console shows examples of non-painful pictures. (Right) The right panel shows examples of painful pictures.
Procedure
First, participants were scanned to learn high-resolution structural images. Then functional images were caused, while the participants viewing the stimuli displayed on a greyness groundwork. The E-prime software (Psychology Software Tools, Inc., Pittsburgh, PA, U.s.) and a back-projection system were used for presenting the stimuli. All the pictures were randomly presented on the screen and the procedure in each run was exactly the same. Participants were asked to watch each film carefully and to try to experience the feelings of the persons whose torso parts were shown in the pictures. The oddball paradigm was used to ensure that participants viewed the pictures carefully and did non close their eyes. This entailed two kinds of trials: stimulus-merely trials and stimulus–response trials.
In stimulus-only trials, each movie was presented for 2,000 ms with jittered inter-stimulus intervals (ISI, lasted for ii,000, iv,000, or 6,000ms), during which a black fixation betoken was presented confronting the gray background. Participants were instructed to view the picture carefully and but await for the adjacent trial. In stimulus–response trials, each picture was presented for 2,000 ms, followed past a response screen showing the post-obit message: "painful picture: one; non-painful picture: 4." Participants were instructed to printing "i" if they thought the pic was painful, and to press "iv" if they thought the moving-picture show was non-painful. This screen remained for 2,000 ms. Jittered ISI were used as they were in the stimulus-only trials. Stimulus–response trials made up about xx percent of all trials (sixteen trials) in the experiment. The 2 kinds of trials were randomly presented during the experiment (run across Figure 2).
FIGURE 2. Flow paradigm of the experiment.
All the participants responded in all 17 stimulus–response trials. The mean number of correct answers of all participants was xiv.64 (SD = 2.13). Participants in the two groups did not differ significantly in their mean number of correct answers (M V Grand = 14.57, SD = two.31; Grand NG = xiv.71, SD = two.02). Therefore, both groups viewed the presented pictures equally.
fMRI Paradigm Acquisition and Analysis
Scanning was performed with a whole-body 3T Siemens scanner (Siemens Magnetom Trio Tim, Southwest University, Chongqing, People's republic of china). Functional images were acquired using an repeat-planar imaging (EPI) sequence and the following parameters: slice number = 32, TR = 2000 ms, TE = 30 ms, flip angle = 90°, matrix size = 64 × 64, slice thickness = three mm. Images were acquired using an ascending interleaved sequence with no temporal gap betwixt sequent image acquisitions. There was one run of functional scanning that was approximately ix min (270 EPI volumes). A high-resolution structural paradigm was acquired using a T1-weighted, multiplanar reconstruction (MPR) sequence and the following parameters: TR = 1900 ms, TE = two.52 ms, slice thickness = 1 mm, flip angle = 9°, matrix size = 256 × 256, voxel size = 3 mm × 3 mm × 3 mm.
Data preprocessing was carried out with SPM8 (Statistical Parametric Mapping, Wellcome Department of Imaging Neuroscience, London, United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland) implemented in MATLAB 7.0 (The Math Works, Inc., Sherborn, MA, Us). The offset five volumes were discarded to allow for T1 equilibration effects. Data preprocessing included slice-timing correction, correction for caput motion (realigned to the get-go book), normalization, and smoothing using a 6-mm full-width half-maximum isotropic Gaussian kernel. It should be noted that head motions in all participants were corrected and met the criteria with head motility < 3 mm. In this case, iii participants were deleted from the assay.
Nosotros and then analyzed the neural responses to painful and non-painful stimuli in the VG (PVG and NVG) and in the NG (PNG and NNG). Statistical analyses were performed using the general linear model (GLM) implemented in SPM8. GLMs were estimated using a hemodynamic response office and a high laissez passer filter of 128 Hz, as well every bit correction for autocorrelations. For the assay, the six movement regressors of each subject were too included in the pattern matrix as covariates. The simple main effects of each subject for two types of events (P and NP) were computed by applying 'ane -one' contrasts. The four start-level individual dissimilarity images (PVG, NVG, PNG, and NNG) were then analyzed at the 2nd group level adopting the methods of independent samples t-test.
Brain activation representing the perception of painful stimuli was defined using the (PVG + PNG) – (NVG + NNG) contrast. The full factorial model was established to identify different brain regions between NG and VG [(PNG - NNG) - (PVG - NVG), (PVG - NVG) - (PNG - NNG)].
Results
Two participants in the NG did non complete our study so their data were deleted. The data of 2 participants in the NG and one in the VG were deleted either because of excessive head movements. Hence, the data in our terminal assay were collected from 35 participants, including 18 participants in the VG and 17 participants in the NG.
Behavioral Data
An contained-sample t-exam of VVG exposure in ii conditions was conducted and results were establish the difference of familiarity with the VG (M = 142.39, SD = eighteen.66) and NG (Grand = 25.62, SD = six.44), t(33) = v.78, p < 0.05, suggesting significant difference betwixt VG and NG.
No meaning difference betwixt VG (Grand = 49.38, SD = viii.57), and NG (Chiliad = 47.52, SD = ten.79) in IRI-C total score, t(33) = 0.57, p > 0.05, either in each dimension [t(33) = 0.xi, 0.26, 1.09, and 0.68, p > 0.05].
No significant difference betwixt VG (M = 72.12, SD = 17.49), and NG (M = 72.66, SD = 25.19) in BPAQ total score, t(33) = -0.077, p > 0.05, either in each dimension [t(33) = -0.034, 0.365, -0.065, and -0.397, p > 0.05].
fMRI Data
As a first step, nosotros contrasted the brain activity of the painful conditions with the non-painful weather for all the subjects. The results of (PVG + PNG) - (NVG + NNG) showed that when viewing others in pain, regions were activated in the correct supramarginal gyrus (rSMG), lateral middle occipital gyrus, lateral fusiform gyrus, right inferior occipital gyrus, inferior parietal gyrus, middle temporal gyrus, and visual related regions such as V2 (see Figure 3 and Table 1).
Figure three. (A) Regions showing college activation are the regions of supramarginal gyrus, lateral middle occipital gyrus, lateral fusiform gyrus, correct inferior occipital gyrus, inferior parietal gyrus, middle temporal gyrus, and visual related regions such every bit V2 compared with non-painful stimuli (p < 0.001, Alphasim corrected; k > 1361). We accept separately MR imaging at the position of oblique-axial (B) plane, oblique coronal; (C) and sagittalia; (D) in regions activated.
Tabular array 1. Encephalon regions showing significant activation in lateral middle occipital gyrus, lateral fusiform gyrus, right junior occipital gyrus, right supramarginal gyrus, junior parietal gyrus, middle temporal gyrus, and visual related regions such as V2 while viewing painful stimuli compared with not-painful stimuli ( p < 0.001, Alphasim corrected; m > 1361).
And ane sample t-test in VG and NG was separately conducted and the results showed that, in both groups, regions in lateral occipital gyrus, lateral fusiform gyrus, right middle temporal gyrus, and the Secondary visual cortex (V2) were significantly activated (see Figures 4A,B and Table two).
Figure 4. (A) Encephalon regions showing significant activation while viewing painful stimuli compared with non-painful stimuli in NG in lateral middle occipital gyrus, lateral V2, right middle temporal gyrus, lateral fusiform gyrus. (p < 0.001, Alphasim corrected; k > 1138). (B) Brain regions showing significant activation while viewing painful stimuli compared with non-painful stimuli in VG in lateral occipital gyrus, lateral fusiform gyrus, left V2, and right heart temporal gyrus (p < 0.001, Alphasim corrected; g > 1132).
Table ii. Brain regions showing meaning activation in lateral occipital gyrus, lateral fusiform gyrus, left V2, and correct center temporal gyrus in VG, and pregnant activation in lateral occipital gyrus, lateral fusiform gyrus, right lingual gyrus, left V2, and right center temporal gyrus while viewing painful stimuli compared with non-painful stimuli ( p < 0.001, Alphasim corrected; k > 1132 in VG and thou > 1138 in NG).
Since the focus of our study was to explore how previous exposure to video game violence influenced participants' empathic responses, we examined the activation of brain regions showing differences between the two groups. There is no significant difference betwixt VG and NG (p < 0.001, Alphasim corrected).
Discussion
The goal of our written report was to explore the influence of previous exposure to video game violence on neural empathic responses to the pain of others. fMRI results showed that there is significant difference between viewing painful pictures of others and viewing non-painful pictures, which has also been proved separately in VG and NG. While further examination didn't evidence that the empathic neural pattern is different betwixt groups.
Consistent with previous fMRI studies on empathy for pain (e.k., Jackson et al., 2005; Cheng et al., 2008; Nummenmaa et al., 2008; Akitsuki and Decety, 2009; Guo et al., 2012, 2013), the present study found that viewing painful pictures activated many empathy-related regions in the (PVG + PNG) - (NVG + NNG) contrast.
Unlike the linguistic part that has been by and large hitherto acknowledged, the supramarginal gyrus is besides closely linked to empathy. The supramarginal gyrus is function of the somatosensory association cortex, which is involved in perception of space and limbs location and a function of the mirror neuron system (Carlson, 2012). Information technology has been proved that supramarginal gyrus, especially the correct supramarginal gyrus (rSMG) is significantly associated with self-other distinction, the crucial part of the theory of mind (ToM), attributing to the self-other stardom during empathy (Hoffmann et al., 2015). Empathy involves sharing the emotional state of others and being aware of the state both of self and others (Singer and Lamm, 2009). Failure of cocky-other distinction during empathy results in egocentric emotional responses and deficits in ToM (Hoffmann et al., 2015). Silani et al. (2013) found that overcoming emotional egocentricity bias in empathic judgment is associated with increased activation in the rSMG. What's more than, a research conducted by Lang et al. (2011) found the aforementioned rSMG activation to emotional exclamations of others' pain. This is consistent with what we had expected, as viewing others in pain will activate the regions related to empathy. The occipital gyrus are mainly associated with visual processing (Berlucchi, 2014). It has been proved that the inferior occipital gyrus plays an important part in identifying emotionally of import visual clues, and viewing unpleasant pictures can significantly activate the left inferior occipital gyrus compared to the neutral situations (Geday et al., 2003). What'due south more, the posterior fusiform and inferior occipital gyrus were assumed equally the core regions in identifying emotionally of import visual clues (Geday et al., 2003). The present study also found that participants viewing painful pictures had stronger activation in the inferior parietal lobule than those viewing non-painful pictures. The inferior parietal lobule has a critical office in distinguishing betwixt self-produced actions and actions generated by others (Decety and Jackson, 2004; Lamm et al., 2008). A previous fMRI report demonstrated that higher activation of this region reflects less self-other overlap, which leads to greater accuracy during social perception (Lawrence et al., 2006). Another significantly activated region is the lateral fusiform, which is known as a key region related to facial perception. However, information technology has been proved that fusiform gyrus is associated with the processing of "ToM" and so is empathy (Castelli et al., 2000; Gallagher et al., 2000; Moll et al., 2002). It can exist modulated by emotional valence, and it has been proved that right fusiform gyrus was more active than the left during emotional processing (Geday et al., 2003). This is consistent with our findings, which suggest that exposure to painful pictures volition induce the emotional response and the unpleasant pictures are more arousing.
Information technology should be noted that in that location are no significant difference in the total factorial design in [(PVG - NVG) - (PNG - NNG)]. This may suggest that there is no deficit in the neural responses of empathy for pain in individuals with VVG feel, existence inconsistent with some extant studies (e.g., Funk et al., 2004; Anderson et al., 2010; Strenziok et al., 2011; Zhen et al., 2011; Montag et al., 2012; Guo et al., 2013), which all suggest that long-term exposure to media violence has a desensitization effect. Yet, Decety et al. (2009) showed that youth with aggressive bear disorder practise non have a deficit in empathy and may have an atypical pattern of neural response while viewing others in pain. Similarly, a survey conducted by Collins and Freeman (2013) found no difference in empathy between gamers and non-gamers. This tin exist seen from the painful pictures and non-painful pictures dissimilarity both in VG and NG. The brain activation in both VG and NG showed similar pattern when viewing painful pictures compared to viewing non-painful pictures. The lateral fusiform gyrus was activated in both groups, which is important during empathy.
This may indicate that long-fourth dimension exposure to VVGs is not strongly associated with desensitization to violence, especially pain empathy to others. This is supported past researches conducted by Szycik et al. (2016, 2017). In their researches, the positive, negative, and neutral pictures were displayed and the fMRI data was collected. Repeated experiments proved that in that location was no evidence for a neural desensitization in the processing of emotionally salient stimuli, same as our research findings. Taking all the findings together, it is necessary for u.s.a. to rethink the desensitization hypothesis. The goad model proposed by Ferguson et al. (2008) pointed that, just like competition, playing VVGs is the event of attacking intention, not the cause of it. In this case, VVGs are not significantly relevant to aggressive behaviors. At the same fourth dimension, the catharsis theory of playing contends that playing VVG, specially action game, provide a way to bleed the aggressive emotion and free energy off, rather than increasing the aggressive belief. Afterward enjoying themselves immersing in the games, the nervous feelings and extra free energy were consumed, players are used to feeling entirely free from worry. Compared to researches based on cocky-report measures, neuropsychological researches are definitely more valid to evidence the long-term effect.
This enquiry was based on the comprehensive view of VVG issue without certain bias and based on what was shown in this study, it could exist suggested that our research is more objective and convincing. Still, our report also has some limitations and there are areas that need further exploration. The present study did not measure sensitivity to pain, so we cannot rule out the possibility that some of our findings were influenced by individual differences among the participants. On the other paw, although there were no gender-related differences on empathy shown in the present written report, information technology still may exist caused past the gender distribution. It should be noted that only males were examined in our inquiry and the inquiry is suitable when the participants are confined to males. Further studies should pay attention to gender distribution. Furthermore, unknown variations or inconsistencies in the functions of some brain regions and neural circuits might explain the observed activations in some brain regions. Exploring the influence of VVGs on cerebral empathy and emotional empathy separately may provide the topic with more than precise findings.
Conclusion
The observation that at that place were no significant differences between VG and NG suggests that individuals with VVG exposure may not have a deficit in their chapters for empathy. The differences in empathy for hurting between individuals with VVG experience and non-VVG experience indicated that the desensitization effect of VVGs is non significant.
Compliance With Upstanding Standards
All procedures performed in studies involving homo participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Written informed consent was obtained after detailed explanation of the written report protocol, which was canonical by the Ethics Commission of Southwest University. The Institutional Review Board at Southwest University (SWU) in Chongqing, China canonical this consent procedure. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants. The Institutional Review Board at SWU approved all procedures. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Author Contributions
Conceived and designed the experiments: XG and LW. Performed the experiments: XG, CL, and WP. Analyzed the information: CL, XG, WP, and MY. Wrote the paper: WP, XG, LW, and CL. Editing and Revisions: XG, Ac, CL, and WP.
Funding
This study was funded by National Social Science Foundation of China (grant number 14XSH013) and Project of Research Part of Self-Supporting Personality and Community Psychology at Southwest University.
Disharmonize of Involvement Argument
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or fiscal relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
References
Akitsuki, Y., and Decety, J. (2009). Social context and perceived agency affects empathy for pain: an event-related fMRI investigation. Neuroimage 47, 722–734. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.04.091
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Anderson, C. A., and Bushman, B. J. (2001). Effects of violent video games on aggressive beliefs, ambitious cognition, ambitious touch on, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior: a meta-analytic review of the scientific literature. Psychol. Sci. 12, 353–359. doi: 10.1111/1467-9280.00366
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Anderson, C. A., and Bushman, B. J. (2002). Human being aggression. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 53, 27–51. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135231
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Anderson, C. A., Carnagey, Due north. L., Flanagan, One thousand., Benjamin, A. J., Eubanks, J., and Valentine, J. C. (2004). Trigger-happy video games: specific effects of violent content on ambitious thoughts and beliefs. Adv. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 36, 199–249. doi: ten.1016/S0065-2601(04)36004-1
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Anderson, C. A., and Dill, K. Eastward. (2000). Video games and aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behavior in the laboratory and in life. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 78, 772–790. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.78.four.772
PubMed Abstruse | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Anderson, C. A., Sakamoto, A., Gentile, D. A., Ihori, N., Shibuya, A., and Yukawa, S. (2008). Longitudinal effects of violent video games on aggression in Japan and the United States. Pediatrics 122, 1067–1072. doi: ten.1542/peds.2008-1425
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Anderson, C. A., Shibuya, A., Ihori, N., Swing, Eastward. 50., Bushman, B. J., Sakamoto, A., et al. (2010). Trigger-happy video game effects on assailment, empathy, and prosocial behavior in eastern and western countries: a meta-analytic review. Psychol. Balderdash. 136, 151–173. doi: 10.1037/a0018251
PubMed Abstruse | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Avenanti, A., Bueti, D., Galati, Grand., and Aglioti, S. M. (2005). Transcranial magnetic stimulation highlights the sensorimotor side of empathy for pain. Nat. Neurosci. viii, 955–960. doi: 10.1038/nn1481
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Barlett, C. P., and Anderson, C. A. (2011). Re-appraising the situation and its touch on on aggressive behavior. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 37, 1564–1573. doi: 10.1177/0146167211423671
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Total Text | Google Scholar
Bartholow, B. D., Sestir, M. A., and Davis, E. B. (2005). Correlates and consequences of exposure to video game violence: hostile personality, empathy, and aggressive behavior. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 31, 1573–1586. doi: x.1177/0146167205277205
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Bushman, B. J., and Anderson, C. A. (2001). Media violence and the American public: scientific facts versus media misinformation. Am. Psychol. 56, 477–489. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.56.6-seven.477
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Total Text | Google Scholar
Bushman, B. J., and Huesmann, Fifty. R. (2006). Short-term and long-term furnishings of fierce media on assailment in children and adults. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 160, 348–352. doi: 10.1001/archpedi.160.iv.348
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Bushnell, M. C., Duncan, G. H., Hofbauer, R. K., Ha, B., Chen, J. I., and Carrier, B. (1999). Pain perception: is there a part for primary somatosensory cortex? Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. UsaA. 96, 7705–7709. doi: 10.1073/pnas.96.xiv.7705
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Carlson, N. R. (2012). Physiology of Beliefs, 11th Edn. London: Pearson.
Google Scholar
Carnagey, N. L., Anderson, C. A., and Bushman, B. J. (2007). The effect of video game violence on physiological desensitization to real-life violence. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 43, 489–496. doi: 10.1007/s10964-014-0202-z
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Castelli, F., Happe, F., Frith, U., and Frith, C. (2000). Movement and mind: a functional imaging report of perception and estimation of complex intentional move patterns. Neuroimage 12, 314–325. doi: 10.1006/nimg.2000.0612
PubMed Abstruse | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Cheng, Y., Yang, C. Y., Lin, C. P., Lee, P. L., and Decety, J. (2008). Expertise modulates the perception of hurting in others. Neuroimage 40, 1833–1840. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.01.064
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Total Text | Google Scholar
Collins, E., and Freeman, J. (2013). Practice problematic and not-problematic video game players differ in extraversion, trait empathy, social majuscule and prosocial tendencies? Comput. Hum. Behav. 29, 1933–1940. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2013.03.002
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Danziger, N., Prkachin, K. Yard., and Willer, J. C. (2006). Is pain the price of empathy? The perception of others' hurting in patients with congenital insensitivity to hurting. Brain 129, 2494–2507. doi: 10.1093/encephalon/awl155
PubMed Abstruse | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Davidson, R. J., Putnam, M. M., and Larson, C. L. (2000). Dysfunction in the neural circuitry of emotion regulation—A possible prelude to violence. Science 289, 591–594. doi: 10.1126/scientific discipline.289.5479.591
CrossRef Total Text | Google Scholar
Decety, J., Michalska, K. J., Akitsuki, Y., and Lahey, B. B. (2009). Atypical empathic responses in adolescents with aggressive conduct disorder: a functional MRI investigation. Biol. Psychol. 80, 203–211. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2008.09.004
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Desai, R. A., Krishnan-Sarin, Due south., Cavallo, D., and Potenza, M. N. (2010). Video-gaming among high schoolhouse students: health correlates, gender differences, and problematic gaming. Pediatrics 126, 1414–1424. doi: 10.1542/peds.2009-2706
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Total Text | Google Scholar
Elson, M., and Ferguson, C. J. (2014). Twenty-five years of research on violence in digital games and aggression: empirical evidence, perspectives, and a debate gone astray. Eur. Psychol. xix, 33–46. doi: 10.1027/1016-9040/a000147
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Fan, Y., Duncan, Due north. W., de Greck, M., and Northoff, G. (2011). Is there a cadre neural network in empathy? An fMRI based quantitative meta-analysis. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 35, 903–911. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.10.009
PubMed Abstruse | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Fan, Y. T., Chen, C. Y., Chen, C. H., Decety, J., and Cheng, Y. West. (2014). Empathic arousal and social understanding in individuals with autism: testify from fMRI and ERP measurements. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. nine, 1203–1213. doi: 10.1093/scan/nst101
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Total Text | Google Scholar
Ferguson, C. J., and Kilburn, J. (2010). Much ado about nix: the misestimation and overinterpretation of violent video game effects in Eastern and Western nations: comment on Anderson et al. (2010). Psychol. Bull. 136, 174–178. doi: 10.1037/a0018566
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text
Ferguson, C. J., Rueda, S. M., Cruz, A. Thousand., Ferguson, D. E., Fritz, S., and Smith, South. 1000. (2008). Tearing video games and aggression: causal human relationship or byproduct of family violence and intrinsic violence motivation? Crim. Justice Behav. 35, 311–332. doi: 10.1002/ab.20329
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Funk, J. B., Baldacci, H. B., Pasold, T., and Baumgardner, J. (2004). Violence exposure in existent-life, video games, television set, movies, and the internet: is there desensitization? J. Adolesc. 27, 23–39. doi: 10.1016/j.boyhood.2003.ten.005
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Gallagher, H. L., Happe, F., Brunswick, Northward., Fletcher, P. C., Frith, U., and Frith, C. D. (2000). Reading the listen in cartoons and stories: an fMRI study of 'theory of mind' in verbal and nonverbal tasks. Neuropsychologia 38, xi–21. doi: 10.1016/S0028-3932(99)00053-half dozen
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Total Text | Google Scholar
Geday, J., Gjedde, A., Boldsen, A. S., and Kupers, R. (2003). Emotional valence modulates activity in the posterior fusiform gyrus and inferior medial prefrontal cortex in social perception. Neuroimage 18, 675–684. doi: 10.1016/S1053-8119(02)00038-1
PubMed Abstruse | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Gentile, D. A., Lynch, P. J., Linder, J. L., and Walsh, D. A. (2004). The furnishings of violent video game habits on adolescent hostility, aggressive behaviors, and school functioning. J. Adolesc. 27, 5–22. doi: x.1016/j.adolescence.2003.10.002
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Gentile, D. A., Swing, Due east. L., Anderson, C. A., Rinker, D., and Thomas, Thousand. K. (2016). Differential neural recruitment during vehement video game play in violent-and nonviolent-game players. Psychol. Pop. Media Cult. 5, 39–51. doi: 10.1037/ppm0000009
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Goubert, Fifty., Craig, K. D., Vervoort, T., Morley, Due south., Sullivan, One thousand. J., de C Williams, A. C., et al. (2005). Facing others in pain: the effects of empathy. Pain 118, 285–288. doi: 10.1016/j.pain.2005.x.025
PubMed Abstruse | CrossRef Total Text | Google Scholar
Green, C. Southward., and Bavelier, D. (2006). Enumeration versus multiple object tracking: the instance of activity video game players. Cognition 101, 217–245. doi: 10.1016/j.knowledge.2005.x.004
PubMed Abstruse | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Gunter, W. D., and Daly, K. (2012). Casual or spurious: using propensity score matching to detangle the relationship between violent video games and violent behavior. Comput. Hum. Behav. 28, 1348–1355. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2012.02.020
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Guo, X., Zheng, L., Wang, H., Zhu, L., Li, J., Wang, Q., et al. (2013). Exposure to violence reduces empathetic responses to other's hurting. Brain Cogn. 82, 187–191. doi: x.1016/j.bandc.2013.04.005
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Guo, Ten., Zheng, L., Zhang, West., Zhu, L., Li, J., Wang, Q., et al. (2012). Empathic neural responses to others' pain depend on monetary advantage. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 7, 535–541. doi: 10.1093/scan/nsr034
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Hoffman, M. L. (2008). "Empathy and Prosocial Behavior," in Handbook of Emotions, third Edn, eds M. Lewis, J. K. Haviland-Jones, and L. F. Barrett (New York, NY: Guilford Publications), 440–455.
Google Scholar
Hoffmann, F., Koehne, S., Steinbeis, Due north., Dziobek, I., and Singer, T. (2015). Preserved self-other stardom during empathy in autism is linked to network integrity of correct supramarginal gyrus. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 46, 637–648. doi: 10.1007/s10803-015-2609-0
PubMed Abstruse | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Jackson, P. L., Meltzoff, A. North., and Decety, J. (2005). How do we perceive the hurting of others? A window into the neural processes involved in empathy. Neuroimage 24, 771–779. doi: ten.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.09.006
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Jerabeck, J. M., and Ferguson, C. J. (2013). The influence of lone and cooperative violent video game play on ambitious and prosocial beliefs. Comput. Hum. Behav. 29, 2573–2578. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2013.06.034
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Jiang, Y. B., Hu, Y., Wang, Y., Zhou, N., Zhu, L., and Wang, K. (2014). Empathy and emotion recognition in patients with idiopathic generalized epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav. 37, 139–144. doi: ten.1016/j.yebeh.2014.06.005
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Krahé, B., and Möller, I. (2010). Longitudinal furnishings of media violence on aggression and empathy among German language adolescents. J. Appl. Dev. Psychol. 31, 401–409. doi: 10.1016/j.appdev.2010.07.003
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Kühn, South., Romanowski, A., Schilling, C., Lorenz, R., Seiferth, Northward., Banaschewski, T., et al. (2011). The neural ground of video gaming. Transl. Psychiatry ane:e53. doi: x.1038/tp.2011.53
PubMed Abstruse | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Lamm, C., Batson, C. D., and Decety, J. (2007). The neural substrate of man empathy: effects of perspective-taking and cognitive appraisal. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 19, 42–58. doi: 10.1162/jocn.2007.19.1.42
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Lamm, C., Decety, J., and Vocalist, T. (2011). Meta-analytic bear witness for mutual and distinct neural networks associated with directly experienced hurting and empathy for pain. Neuroimage 54, 2492–2502. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.10.014
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Lamm, C., Porges, E. C., Cacioppo, J. T., and Decety, J. (2008). Perspective taking is associated with specific facial responses during empathy for pain. Brain Res. 1227, 153–161. doi: ten.1016/j.brainres.2008.06.066
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Lang, Southward., Yu, T., Markl, A., Müller, F., and Kotchoubey, B. (2011). Hearing others' pain: neural activity related to empathy. Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci. 11, 386–395. doi: 10.3758/s13415-011-0035-0
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Total Text | Google Scholar
Lawrence, E. J., Shaw, P., Giampietro, 5. P., Surguladze, S., Brammer, M. J., and David, A. S. (2006). The role of "shared representations" in social perception and empathy: an fMRI written report. Neuroimage 29, 1173–1184. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.09.001
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Mathews, A., and MacLeod, C. (2005). Cognitive vulnerability to emotional disorders. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. i, 167–195. doi: 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.i.102803.143916
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Meng, J., Hu, L., Shen, L., Yang, Z., Chen, H., Huang, 10., et al. (2012). Emotional primes modulate the responses to others' pain: an ERP study. Exp. Brain Res. 220, 277–286. doi: 10.1007/s00221-012-3136-2
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Molenberghs, P., Ogilvie, C., Louis, W. R., Decety, J., Bagnall, J., and Bain, P. Chiliad. (2015). The neural correlates of justified and unjustified killing: an fMRI study. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 10, 1397–1404. doi: 10.1093/scan/nsv027
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Moll, J., Oliveira-Souza, R., Eslinger, P. J., Bramati, I. E., Mourao-Miranda, J., Andreiuolo, P. A., et al. (2002). The neural correlates of moral sensitivity: a functional magnetic resonance imaging investigation of bones and moral emotions. J. Neurosci. 22, 2730–2736.
PubMed Abstract | Google Scholar
Montag, C., Weberb, B., Trautner, P., Newportb, B., Marketta, S., and Walter, N. T. (2012). Does excessive play of vehement start-person-shooter-video-games dampen brain activity in response to emotional stimuli? Biol. Psychol. 89, 107–111. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2011.09.014
PubMed Abstruse | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Nummenmaa, L., Hirvonen, L., Parkkola, R., and Hietanen, J. K. (2008). Is emotional contagion special? An fMRI written report on neural systems for affective and cognitive empathy. Neuroimage 43, 571–580. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.08.014
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Phelps, E. A., O'Connor, K. J., Gatenby, J. C., Gore, J. C., Grillon, C., and Davis, G. (2001). Activation of the left amygdala to a cerebral representation of fear. Nat. Neurosci. four, 437–441. doi: 10.1038/86110
PubMed Abstruse | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Silani, Thousand., Lamm, C., Ruff, C. C., and Vocaliser, T. (2013). Correct supramarginal gyrus is crucial to overcome emotional egocentricity bias in social judgments. J. Neurosci. 33, 15466–15476. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1488-thirteen.2013
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Singer, T., Seymour, B., O'Doherty, J., Kaube, H., Dolan, R. J., and Frith, C. D. (2004). Empathy for pain involves the melancholia but not the sensory components of pain. Science 303, 1157–1161. doi: ten.1126/science.1093535
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Singer, T., Seymour, B., O'Doherty, J. P., Stephan, Grand. E., Dolan, R. J., and Frith, C. D. (2006). Empathic neural responses are modulated by the perceived fairness of others. Nature 439, 466–469. doi: 10.1038/nature04271
PubMed Abstruse | CrossRef Total Text | Google Scholar
Strenziok, G., Krueger, F., Deshpande, M., Lenroot, R. K., van der Meer, E., and Grafman, J. (2011). Fronto-parietal regulation of media violence exposure in adolescents: a multi-method study. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. vi, 537–547. doi: x.1093/scan/nsq079
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Szycik, G. R., Mohammadi, B., and Hake, M. (2016). Excessive users of violent video games do not show emotional desensitization: an fMRI study. Brain Imaging Behav. doi: 10.1007/s11682-016-9549-y [Epub alee of print].
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Szycik, Grand. R., Mohammadi, B., Münte, T. F., and Wildt, B. T. (2017). Lack of prove that neural empathic responses are blunted in excessive users of violent video games: an fMRI written report. Front. Psychol. 8:174. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00174
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Tear, M. J., and Nielsen, M. (2014). Video games and prosocial behavior: a written report of the effects of non-violent, trigger-happy and ultra-tearing gameplay. Comput. Hum. Behav. 41, 8–xiii. doi: 10.1177/0146167213520459
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Valeriani, One thousand., Betti, Five., Le, P. D., De, A. L., Miliucci, R., Restuccia, D., et al. (2008). Seeing the pain of others while existence in pain: a light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation-evoked potentials report. Neuroimage 40, 1419–1428. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.12.056
PubMed Abstruse | CrossRef Total Text | Google Scholar
Walter, H., Adenzato, M., Ciaramidaro, A., Enrici, I., and Bara, B. M. (2004). Understanding intentions in social interaction: the role of the anterior paracingulate cortex. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 16, 1854–1863. doi: 10.1162/0898929042947838
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Total Text | Google Scholar
Wang, Y., Mathews, V. P., Kalnin, A. J., Mosier, K. M., Dunn, D. Westward., and Saykin, A. J. (2009). Short term exposure to a trigger-happy video game induces changes in frontolimbic circuitry in adolescents. Brain Imaging Behav. iii, 38–fifty. doi: 10.1007/s11682-008-9058-8
CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Winston, J. S., Vuilleumier, P., and Dolan, R. J. (2003). Effects of depression-spatial frequency components of fearful faces on fusiform cortex activity. Curr. Biol. 13, 1824–1829. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2003.09.038
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Zhang, F. B., Dong, Y., Wang, L., Chan, C. Y., and Xie, L. F. (2010). Reliability and validity of the Chinese version of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index-C. Mentum. J. Clin. Psychol. 2, 155–157.
Google Scholar
Zhen, South. J., Xie, H. 50., Zhang, W., Wang, S. J., and Li, D. P. (2011). Exposure to violent computer games and Chinese adolescents' physical aggression: the function of beliefs near aggression, hostile expectations, and empathy. Comput. Hum. Behav. 27, 1675–1687. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2011.02.006
PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar
Source: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00650/full
0 Response to "Are Video Games Desensitizing Kids to Violence(Peer Reviewed)"
Post a Comment